Endnotes

[1] Nomenklatura refers to one of the mechanism of Party control. It involveld the classification of all significant positions of decision-making in the govmmental and administrative hierarchy which can be filled only by the most reliable party cadres. In other words, it entails a dual record keeping function: on the one hand, keeping track of all positions that control "the commanding heights of power", and on the other hand, maintaining a list of potential eligible party activists to fill these positions. Combined with the principle of "democratic centralism" this has meant that control of leadership selection always remained fimily in the hands of the Party's top leaders

[2] See particularly the annual yearbooks of NATO. For the present discussion I have drawn on the data presented in the report: "The Military Balance 1988-89" in the compilation provided by the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies.

[3] Ion Mihai Pacepa's Red Horizons (see endnote 38) provides the most extensive revelations about the operations of Romania's surveillance. security and intelligence network.

[4] For the data at the end of the 1970.s. see Paul S. Shoup (ed.). The East European and Soviet Data Handbook (New York, 1981).

[5] Cultural Genocide or Ethnocide is the extirpation of an ethnic or national community by depriving it of its culture. It has been coined to describe the systematic effort o undermine the cultural identity and cohesion of minorities by majorities (e.g. Romanization,Russification. etc.). This differs from "genocide" in that the group is not physicallyexterminated (eliminated), only deprived of cultural allegiance through policies of forcedacculturation/assimilationl (e.g. monolingual educational, social, political, economic, andcultural policies) which are driven by an intolerance of diversity and the eternal quest for homogeneity. By obstructing or destroying the institutional mechanism for the transmission of symbols, values, language and knowledge, a people subjected to this process disappears, or becomes "de-nationalized." by becoming part of another culture or "national community." One national identity forcibly replaces the previous national identity.

[6] To understand the historical roots of Transylvania and the ethnic conflict in that region, see Hugh Seton-Watson, Nations and States: An Inquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism (Londoll, 1977), pp. 157-169, 175-185; Elemer Melyusz, ed., .Siebenburgen and seine Volkerschaften (Budapest-Leipzig, 1943); Constantin C. Giurescu and Dinu C. Giurescu, Geschichte der Rumginen (Bucharest, 1980); Constantin C. Giurescu, Transylvania in the History of Romania (London, n.d. c. 1970); John F. Cadzow, Andrew Ludanyi and Louis Elteto eds., Transylvania: Roots of Ethnic Conflict (Kent, Ohio, 1983); Miron Constantinescu and Stefan Pascu, Unification of the Romanian National State (Bucharest, 1971); Ceausescu, Ilie, Transylvanie, terre ancienne roumaine (Bucharest, 1984); Kiraly, Pastor, Sanders eds., Essays on the World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, A Case .Study on Trianon. (New York, 1982); Stephen Borsody ed., The Hungarians: A Divided Nation (New Haven, 1988); Stephen Fischer-Galati, Twentieth Century Rumania, (New York, 1979); Elemer Illyes, National Minorities in Romania: Change in Transylvania (New York, 1982) esp. pp. 9-28.

[7] Bela Kopeczi, ed., Erdely tortenete [History of Transylvania] 3 vols. (Budapest, 1986).

[8] Transylvania refers to the territories acquired by Romania from Hungary following World War I. However. not all of these territories were considered a part of historic Transylvania. It is none the less accurate to say that all regions acquired by Romania north of the Transylvanian Alps and west of the eastem Carpathian mountain ranges. including the lowlands of the Banat and Szatmar regions (the old Partium) have since that time been called Transylvania. This Latin designation means "land beyond the forest." The Hungarian name for the region is "Erdely" (forest covered land), which was then also adopted by the Romanians with a slightly different pronunciation and writen as "Ardeal." The Saxon German designation for the historic Transylvania was Siebenburgen (or the land of seven castles).

[9] The estimated figures provided in parentheses are more reliable and provide a more accurate picture of the current strength of the minority population.

[10] Borsody, Hungarians, XXI-XXVIII, 3-31.

[11] Gyorgy Schopflin, "Az emberi jogok es a nemzetisegi kerdes Romaniaban" [Human rights and the nationality question in Romania], Szazadveg (1987) pp. 108-120; "The Ideology of Rumanian Nationalism," .Survey 20, Nos. 2-3: 77-104.

[12] Recensamintul populatiei si al locuintelor din 5 ianuarie /977, (Bucharest, 1977), 1, pp 614-621

[13] See A Golopentia and D C Georgescu, Populatia Republicii Populare Romanei la 25 ianuarie /948 (Probleme Economice /948 martie) pp 28-45; Recensamintul populaiiei din 21 februarie 1956 Recensamintul populatiei si locuintelor din 15 martie 1966 Recensamintul populatiei si al locuintelor din 5 ianuarie 1977. I 6l4-621

[14] George Schopflill, The Hungarians of Rumania (London, 1978) p 6; Illyes, National Minorities, p. 33; Zoltan Daivid, "Magyarok - hataraink menten" [Hungarians along Our borders], Mozgo Vilag, l982 7, pp 38-50

[15] The Szekelys, or Szeklers as they are sometimes called, are a distinct ethnic subgroup within the Transylvanian Hungarian population. They possess distinct territorial settlements and distinct cultural traits.

[16] See Illyes, National Minorities, pp 11-12; Gergely Csoma and Pal Peter Domokos, Moldvai csango magyarok [The Csango Hungarians of Mioldavia] (Budapest, 1988)

[17] Schopflin, Hungarians of Rumania, p. 6; Illyes, National Minorities, pp 31-33

[18] Romanian currency. with value of 27.5 lei = 1 U.S. dollar at the end of the 1980s.

[19] Reports of the Hungarian Press of Transylvania (HPT); Rumanien und die Menschenrechte anliegen der Minderheiten (Zurich, 1987) pp 6-7

[20] For the official presentation of thle "systematizatioll project" see Zoltan Mihalka." Teruletrendezes - atfogo es komplex program az orszsag helysegeinek felviragoztatasara" [Systemizatioll - a global and complex program in order to bring prosperity to the sttlemelns of the country], Elore, June 14, 1988. Among foreign reactions, see "A magyar Orszayules allasfoglalasa a romaniai 'teruletrendezesi' programrol'' [The statement of the Hungarian Parliament on the "settlement systematization project" in Romania], Magyar Nemzet, July 2, 1988; "Resolution on new measures liquidatilig villages in Romana " Text adopted by the European Parliament, Thursday, July 7, 1988; U.S. Senate Resolution 461 condemning Romania for its human rights violations. Augiut 11. 1988: Resolulioll of the Executive Committee of the Federel Union of European Nationalities (FUEN) Antwerp, September 16-17, 1988; in Erdely-,Siebenburgen-Transylvania (Felsoor-Oberwart, 1988), p. 19; Janet Heller, "Ceausescu, Cultural Vandal," The New York Times, December 12, 1988.

[21] See Illyes, National Minorities, pp. 66-67; Schopflin, Hungarians of Rumania, pp. 13-14; Transylvanian World Federation, Rumania's Violations of the Helsinki Final Act Provisions (Berlin, 1980), pp. 40-42.

[22] Bjorn Cato Funnemark, S.O.S Transylvania (Vienna, 1988), pp. 38-39.

[23] Hungarian Press of Transylvania, December l988.

[24] See e.g., some statutes concerning the minorities, in "Documents".

[25] See "Documents" at the end of the study.

[26] Ibid.

[27] For more details, see Illyes, National Minorities, pp. 94- 111; and Kopeczi, ed., Erdely tortenete, vol. 3, 1759-1762; Gyorgy Beke, "Nemzetisegi letfeltetelek epitese Erdelyben 1944 es 1948 kozott" The evolution of the status of minorities in Transylvania between 1944 and 19481, Forras, 1982: 8, pp. 80-86.

[28]Vilagossag, 1946: 7, 7.

[29] Ildiko Lipcsey, "A romaniai Nepi Szovetseg 1944-48" [The Hungarian People's Federation in Romania, 1944-48] Tortenelmi Szemle, 1985/l, pp. 96-117.

[30] The original text of the two previous constitutions can be found in Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 87/1948, April 13, 1948; Buletinul Oficial no. 1, 1952. The revised text of the 1965 constitution is in Buletinul Oficial no. 56, 1974.

[31] For an excellent discussion of the "gerrymandering" policy of the Romanian government toward the Hungarian Autonomous Region, see Walker Connor, The National Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy (Princeton. 1984), pp. 237-238, 340-342.

[32] Buletinul Oficial no. 56/1974.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Buletinul Oficial I, no. 113/1978, December 26, 1978.

[35] Schopflin, The Hungarians of Rumania, p. 9

[36] A detailed presentation of these developments is given in Sandor Koppandi, ed., A romaniai magyar nemzetiseg The Hungarian nationality in Romanial, (Bucuresti, l 981) .

[37] For the text of the law-decree, see "Documents".

[38] Ibid.

[39] Ibid.

[40] University students, upon graduation. are required to fulfill a kind of professional internship within a civil service framework.

[41] Ibid.

[42] For details on the Romanian historic evolution on this matter see George Schopflin. "The Ideology of Romanian Nationalism," Survey, 20/2-3, pp. 77-l04. From the same author, "Transylvania: Hungarians under Romanian Rule," in Borsody, ed., The Hungarians: A Divided Nation, pp. 119-158.

[43] Illyes, National Minorities, p. 137.

[44] See, e.g., the statements made at the joint session of Councils of Hungarian andd German Nationality Workers. Igazsag, March 4, 1987; Elore, March 1-5, 1987.

[45] Based on interviews with Transylvanian refugees in Hungary.

[46] See Karoly Kiraly's letters in Witnesses to Cultural Genocide: Firsthand Reports on Rumania's Minority Policies (New York, 1979), pp. 162- 178.

[47] About the general human rights abuses and the "minority policy" pursued by the Securitate and the Romanian party-state as a whole see Ion Mihai Pacepa, Red Horizons: Chronicles of a Communist Spy Chief, (Washington D.C., 1987).

[48] The Iron Guard, an extreme right-wing organization, supported Hitler and his policies during World War II. It was responsible for stirring up numerous anti-Semitic and anti-Hungarian activities, including the instigation of riots in Brasov (Brasso), Aiud (Nagyenyed), and Cluj (Kolozsvar) in 1936.

[49] The Daco-Roman continuity theory and its place in the Romanian-Hungarian conftict receives extensive treatment in Hugh Seton-Watson, Nations and .States (Boulder, 1977), pp. 175-185; Andrew Ludanyi, "Ideology and Political Culture in Rumania The Daco-Roman Theory and the 'Place' of Minorities," in Cadzow. Ludallyi, Elteto, eds.. Transylvania: The Roots of Ethnic Conflict, pp. 229-244.

[50] Some examples of incitement of hatred against Hungarians and of the deliberate falsification of history are Ion Lancranjan, The .Story of Transylvania (Buchest, 1982); Ion Lancranjan, Teroarea fierbinte [Hot Autumn] (Bucharest, 1986); Teroarea Horthysto-fascista in Nordvestul Romaniei, septembrie 1940-octobrie 1945 [Horthyite fascist terror in northwest RomaniaSeptember 1940 to October 1944] (Bucharest, 1985). Also see the accounts of the meetings of the Councils of Hungarian and German Nationality Workers in Elore, March 1-5, 1987, and Igazsag, March 4, 1987.

[51] Old Kingdom refers to the regions that constituted the Kingdom of Romania prior to World War I.This means mainly the tenritory that is referred to as the Regats which included the regions of Wallachia, Oltenia and Moldavia south and east of the Carpathian mountain range and the Transylvanian Alps. The union of these regions led to the estahlishment of Romania in 1859. The unification was firmed up by inviting the German Hohenzollen-Sigmaringen ruling family to occupy the throne of the country in 1866 From this tine until 1947 Romania became a monarchy. but the "Old Kingdom"refers only to its pre-1918 territorres.

[52] Based on personal interviews with refugees from Transylvania.

[53] For an analyses of the literary expression of the minority grievances, see Karoly Nagy, "Patterns of Minority Life: Recent Hungarian Literary Reports in Romania", in Society in Change: Studies in Honor of Bela Kiraly, Steven Bela Vardy and Agnes Huszar Vardy, eds., New York, 1983), pp. 585-595. For the opposition of some Catholic and Protestant priests to the religious and minority persecution, see Funnemark, S.O.S. Transylvania, p. 52. For a presentatioll of protest-suicide cases. see Robert R. King, Minorities Under Communism (Cambridge, 173) p. 154.

[54] For a collection of minority representatives' letters, memoranda and situation reports, see Witnesses in Cultural Genocide; Rumanien und die Menschenrechte, Anhang, 2/A-2/D

[55] See "Documents"

[56] Freedom of the press and its repression in Ceausescu's Romania came abruptly to an end with his overthrow in December, 1989. However, the restraints on the writen media continue in a more subtle form through financial obstacles. limited access to printing presses, paper shortages. and hindrances to the effective distribution of published materials.

[57] Koppandi, ed., A romaniai magyar nemzetiseg, pp 449-461.

[58] Illyes, National Minorities, pp. 248-249.

[59] See footnote 35 and Elore. 1978: 2. 28; Korunk, 1978: 3.

[60] Present decade or this decade refers to the 1980s. when the present study was first published.

[61] Erdely tortenete Vol. 3. 1773-l774; Beke, "Nemzetisegi letfeltetelek ...," pp. 80-86.

[62] Second Vienna Award refers to the only instance in the 20th century when a territorial compromise was attempted regarding the Transylvanian question. It led to the division of the province into two parts. with the Northem two-fifths going to Hungary and the Southern three-fifths going to Romania. To avoid a conflict that would detract from plans for a Nazi Grossraum both the Hungarians and Romanians were pressured to submit their dispute to the Axis for an arbitral decision. Joachim von Ribbentrop of the Third Reich and Galeazzo Ciano of Mussolini's Italy rendered the decision at a meeting in Vienna on August 30. 1940. It was a real compromise. although at the time neither Hungary nor Romania were satisfied. However. the decision returned northem Transylvania with a Hungarian plurality to Hungary, while it left southern Transylvania with a Romanian majority as part of Romania. Ribbentrop (and Hitler) supported Romania, Ciano (and Mussolini) supported Hungary. It was an arbitral agreement, whatever one may think of the arbitrators themselves. This Vienna decision, at least in this one respects was superior to the Treaty of Trianon, which was simply a Diktat of the victors over the vanquished. Through the Second Vienna award the Romanians retumed to Hungary an area of 19,300 square miles with a population of 2,3S5,987. Its population was mixed. but it did contain a relative majority (plurality) of Magyars. The statistics indicate that the award also left with Hungary approximately one million Romanians. This compares favorably with the Trianon ''solution'' which left 1.704,000 Magyars under Romania. As opposed to this. Romania.s Magyar minority of 1.704.000 was reduced to 533.004. Territorial changes make the compromise even cleare. In this category. Hungary received the poorer half not only in terms of area, but also in regard to natural resources and industrial capacity. A direct result of this award was the establishment of Hungarian administration over northem Transylvania. This administration lasted from August 1940 to the autumn of 1944. It provided an opportunity for a brief Hungarian cultural revival.

[63] Janos Bolyai was a 19th century Hungarian mathematician whose theory of parallels made a significant contribution to non-Euclidian geometry.

[64] Csango (sing.) or Csangok (pl. ) refers to those Hungarians who broke off from the main body of Hungarian setlements in Transylvania and crossed the Carpathians to establish new settlements in Moldavia or Bukovina. The earliest such settlements can be traced back to the 14th century althought Laszlo Mikecs in Csangok argues that some settlement took place probably as early as the end of the 9th century. Whatever the case may be, the Csango population, because of its long separation from the main body of Hungarians in the Carpathian basin, developed its unique culture and retained an archaic form of the Hungarian language. In more recent years urbanization and contact with industrial society has also added many Romanian words to their vocabulary. Of all the Hungarians in Romania, they have been under most pressure to assimilate with the Romanian majority. At present there are about 100,000 Csango Hungarians in Moldavia, primarily in Bacau county.

[65] For the connections of this development with the 1956 revolution in Hungary, see also, Andrew Ludanyi, "The Revolution and the Fate of Hungarians in Neighboring States," in Kiraly, Lotze, Dreisziger, eds., The First War Between Socialist States: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and its Impact (New York, 1984), pp. 393-397; King, Minorities pp. 152-153.

[66] Buletinul Oficial no. 6 l969.

[67] Based on personal interviews with refugees from Transylvania.

[68] Attila Ara-Kovacs, A nyolcvanas evek Romaniaja es az erdelyi magyarsag [Romania in the Eighties and the Hungarians of Transylvania], Manuscript, Budapest, 1987, and Reports of the Hungarian Press of Transylvania.

[69] Numerus clausus refers to a state policy of reverse affimmative action, particularly as this relates to educational opportunities. It is a phrace that was popularized in inter-war Hungary as a mechanism of discrimination against minorities who were "over represented" in some of the professions relative to their numbers in the total population (law, medicine, business, joumalism) and in their share of students in higher education. The goal of numerus clausus was to put a ceiling on the number of students admitted to institutions of higher education trom the Jewish population. The stated objective of this policy was to give the economically disadvantaged majority access to higher education. The hidden agenda of this policy was to reduce the social, cultural, economic, and political influence of the Jews. In Romania today a policy of numerus clausus also exists in practice against the Hungarian minority. Although no one law provides such a "ceiling" the cumulative effect of reduced access to edacation in their own language. limits put on admission to higher education via discriminatory tests, the elimination of the Hungarian-language university, and numerous spoken discriminatory directives, have reduced the Hungarian share of the population's professional sector and university educated sector to less than half of what the Hungarian proportion of the overall population would warrant.

[70] These official figures were used in A Living Reality in Romania Today: Full Harmony and Equality Between the Romanian People and the Cohabiting Nationalities (n.p., n.d.).

[71] Institute for Hungarian Studies A Romamiaban elo magyarok helyzeterol [On the Situation of Hungarians Living in Romania]. Manuscript, Budapest, l987. See "Documents."

[72] Based on interview with tlle person now living in Hlmgary.

[73] See the declaration by the Hungarian Writers Association, "Szolidaritas Kanyadi Sandorral" [Solidarity with Sandor Kanyadi], Elet es Irodalom 1987: 10.

[74] See Witnesses to Cultural Genocide, pp. 145-161.

[75] Institute for Hungarian Studies A Romaniaban elo magyarok helyzeterol, p. 17.

[76] See footnote 58.

[77] This process began already in 1974. For details, see Schopflin, The Hungarians in Rumania p. 13.

[78] For further details, see Lajos Ftir, "Hungarian History as Taught by Hungary,s Neighbors," in Borsody, ed., The Hungarians: A Divided Nation, pp. 303-307.

[79] "Az erdelyi magyar es szasz kultura veszelyeztetett ernlekei" [The threatened monuments of the Hungarian and Saxon Cultures in Transylvania]. A list provided by the Hungarian Press of Transylvania. Cluj (Kolozsvar), April 1987, Manuscript, p. 4.

[80] For a general introduction to Hungarian theatrical life, see the corresponding chapter of Koppandi, ed., A romaniai margyar nemzetiseg, pp. 462-477.

[81] Institute for Hungarian Studies A Romaniaban elo magyarok helyzeterol p. 16.

[82] Funnemark,.S.O.S. Transylvania, p. 42.

[83] See the testimony concerning the harassment of the collectors in Moldavia in "Les Hongrois de Transylvanie," Esprit, 1978: 3, pp. 64-84.

[84] See, Helsinki Watch, Human Rights in Rumania (New York, 1984), pp. 17-29; Sergiu Grossu, Le Calvaire de la Roumanie chretienne (Paris, 1987); Janice Broun, "Religion in Romania: The Truth Behind the Image," Freedom at Issue, March-April, 1984.

[85] Grossu, Le Calvaire, p. 199

[86] Ibid.

[87] Ibid. For examples, see Mircea Pacurariu's and Antonie Plamandfeala's books in the "Bibliographie."

[88] Illyes, National Minorities, p. 220.

[89] In Hungary and Romania. the designation "Calvinist" and ''Reformied'' refers to the same denomination, hence the names are used interchangeably in Hungarian and Romanian sources .

[90] Reformatus egyhaz a Roman Szocialista Koztarsasagban [The Calvinist Church in the Socialist Republic of Rumania], (Cluj-Kolozsvar, 1961).

[91] E.g., see Funnemark. S.O..S. Transylvania, p. 48.

[92] Buletinul Oficial, no. 56 1974.

[93] A detailed elaboration of the subject can be found in Illyes, National Minorities, pp. 218-237; Funnemark, S.O..S. Transylvania, pp. 45-48; Schopflin, The Hungarians in Rumania, pp. 7-8. For the presentation of recent developments we mainly used the writtn or oral communications of clergymen living in Hungary or Romania; the minutes of the debate over the extension of the MFN status to Romania is published in, Congressional Record, Senate, Washihgton, June 26, 1987; Congressional Record, House, Washington, February 18, 1988.

[94] Ibid.

[95] Ibid.

[96] See Matatias Carp, Cartea neagre despre suferintele evreilor din Romania [Black book on the sufferig of the Jews of Romania], q(Bucharest, 1947): I.C. Butnaru. Holocaustul uitat [The forgotten Holocaust] (Tel Aviv,,1985).

[97] On this phenomenon, see King, Minorities Under Communism, p. 148. Committe for Human Rights in Rumania, "Minority Oppression in Rumania: A One Year Record, May 1983-June 1984." (New York, 1984), pp. 26-30.

[98] Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1985, Washington, February, 1986, p. l084.

[99] Based on personal interviews with refugees from Transylvania.

[100] The fact is also confirmed by Country Reports, p. 1084.

[101] Helsinki Watch, Human Rights in Rumania, p. 48; Schopflin, The Hungarians in Romania, p. 15.

[102] Ibid.

[103] On the limitation of personal contacts, see Helsinki Watch Human Rights in Rumania, p. 49.

[104] See footnote 83.

[105] Based on communications delivered by the organizers of the three conferences.

[106] See also, Schopflin. The Hungarains of Rumania, p. l5.

[107] Le Monde, Apri1 9, 1988, p. 7; Magyar Hirlap, April 6, 1988, p 3.

[108] Rudolf Joo, "Kisebbsegek a nemzetkozi kapcsolatokban" [Minorities in international relations], Szazadveg, 1987: 4-5, p 105

[109] See also, Pierre Kende, "Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities," in Borsody, ed , The Hungarians, pp 280-281

[110] Ibid, pp 274-276

[111] From Karoly Vigh's lecture, delivered at the Hungarian Democratic Forum's meeting held in Budapest on March 6, l988, dealing with minorities beyond the Hungarian borders

[112] Lajos Fur, "Nemzetisegi kerdes - nemzetisegtudomanyi kutatasok" {Ethnic problems - ethnic studies], Valosag, 1982: 1, pp 34-46

[113] See the joint statements issued after top level diplomatic talks between Hungary and neighboring states in Nepszabadsag, April 30, 1974; Nepszabadsag, February 3, 1977; Nepszabadsag, April 28, 1976: Nepszabadsag, June 17, I977

[114] This concem and criticism was expressed in a letter from 19 Hungarian inlellectuals to the First Secretary of the HSWP Central Committee on the matter of Hungarian minorities, dated July 27. 1984.

[115] For the changing pattern of the Hungarian policy in this matter, see also, Bennen Kovrig, "The Magyars in Romania: Problems of a 'Cohabiting' Nationality." ,Sudosteuropa, 35 (1986) h 9, pp 475-490.

[116] See Magyar Hirlap, January 27, 1988.

[117] Imre Szokai - Csaba Tabajdi, "Mai politikank es a nemzetisegi kerdes" [Our policy today and the nationality question], Magyar Nemzet, Febmary 13, 1988.

[118] Illyes, National Minorities, p. 23.

[119] See note on Second Vienna Award, p. 62.

[120] Ibid, p. 24.

[121] For the text, see United Nations, Droits de l'Homme. Recueil d'instruments internationaux, (New York, 1983), p. 10.

[122] Amnesty International, 1987 Report, (London 1987), p. 310.

[123] Ibid., pp. 309-311.

[124] Figures provided by the Hungarian Press of Transylvania.

[125] Pacepa, Red Horizons, p. 73, quotes Ceausescu saying, "We've also got to up the price Tel Aviv and Bolm are paying for Jews and Germans.... Oil, Jews, and Germans are our most important export commodities!"

[126] For the demographic change of this group in the post-war period, see Table I, p. 29 above.

[127] On the negative consequences of the mass emigration for the survival of the German comununity in Transylvania, see e.g., a Transylvanian bishop's opinion in "Siebenburgens Bischof besturzt uber Bonner Freikauf-Plane," ,Suddeutsche Zeitung, August 9, 1988.

[128] Pacepa, Red Horizons, p. 75, contends that the going price was even higher. He states, "The new ...agreement provided that Bucharest would be paid, in cash, a certain amount per head, depending on age, education, profession, employment, and family status, for each Jew allowed to emigrate. In luly 1978, this payment amounted to between $2,000 and $50,000 per person. In some individual cases ...up to $250,000."

[129] Geza Szocs then left Romania to find asylum in in the West. After Ceausescu's overthrow he repatriated and is now Senator in the Romanian Parliament

[130] Magyar Hirlap, January 29, 1988.

[131] Ibid.

[132] Based on the personal accounts of refugees involved in the matter.

[133] A list of Hungarian religious charitable organizations dealing with refugees is provided in the booklet 10 kerdes az erdelyi menekultekrol [10 Questions on the Transylvanian Refugees] (Budapest, 1988), pp. 54-55.

[134] Appeal of the Asylum Committee. Made public in Budapest, January 29, 1988.

[135] The functions of the "Interdepartmental Committee" were presented in an interview with its secretary in 10 kerdes az erdelyi menekultekrol. pp. 24-27.

[136] See, e.g., the statement and recommmendations of the Hungarian Democratic Forum concernig the Hungarian minority in Romania and Transylvanian refugees, March 6, 1988.