Toward a New Central Europe

Nationality I. Preceding the Revolution of 1848/49.

French: Rep. Lherbette, Paris, French National Assembly, July 5, 1848.

Austrians: Adrian-Werburg, 1841-1847; Austrian Parliament, Kromeriz, Nov. 22, 1848; March 6, 1849; Lohner, Nov. 1848; Sommaruga, 1848.

Croats: Ostrozinski, Oct. 7-Nov. 5, 1848.

Czechs: Czech National Council, June 7, 1848; Palacky, Sept. 1848; Rieger, June 7, 1848.

Hungarians: Wesselenyi, 1843, 1849; Kossuth, 1843; Szechenyi, 1842, Nov. 27, 1860; F. Deak, 1847.

Poles: Czartoryski, Jul. Aug. 1830. 1848-1850; Mickievicz, Paris, Feb. 23, 1849; Krasinsky, Apr. 25, 1848; Bystrzonowsky, Oct. 1848.

Rumanians: Rumanian National Committee, May 15-17, 1848; Barnutiu, May 16, 1848; Balcescu, May 27, 1849~ 1860; Golescu, 1848; Ion Ghica, 1848-1849; Maiorescu, Nov. 16, 1848; Dumitru Bratianu, 1848.

Serb: Garasanin, 1844.

Slovaks: Slovak National Council of Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, May 10,1848; Stur, May 10, 1848; Hodza Sr., May 10, 1848; Safarik, 1848.

Slovene: Kavcic, 1848.

II. Preceding the establishment of Dualism,1887

Austrians: Beust, Oct. 1868; Sommaruga, 1867; Fischhof, 1861, 1866.

Croats: Strossmayer, Oct. 15, 1850; Tkalac, June 2, 1848; Sulek, June 1848; Polit-Desancic, 1860-73.

Czech: Palacky, 1865.

Hungarians: L. Teleki, 1849-1861; Kossuth, 1850-1865; F. Deak, 1850-1876; Jokai, 1850-1904; Eotvos, 1850-1871; Klapka, 1850, 1861, 1865.

Rumanians: Balcescu, 1849-50; Golescu, 1850.

Serbs: M. Obrenovic, May, 1859; Stratimirovic, 1865; Miletic, 1865 1877. III. Preceding the Peace Conference of 1919/20.

Austrians: Beust 7 Nov. 1870/71; Hohenwart, Aug. 14, Oct. 23, 1871; Taafe, 1879, 1890; Fischhof 1868-1893; Schuselka, 1871-18S6, Fr. Thun, 1898; Francis Ferdinand 1905-1914; Renner, 1906, 1918; Emperor Charles-Hussarek, Oct. 16, 1918; Bauer, 1907; Seipel 19]6.

Czechs: Palacky, 1868; Rieger, Apr. 1871; Prazak, 1871; Benes, 1908; Masaryk, before 1918; Kramar, 1915.

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Croats: St. Radic, Jan. 5, l905 and 1918.

Hungarians: Jaszi, 1918; .Ady, Nov.3, 1918; Bela Bartok, Nov. 3, 1918; Zoltan Kodaly, Nov. 3, 1918; Babits, Nov. 3, 1918; Kassak, Nov. 3, 1918; Kosztolanyi, Nov. 3. 1918; Marcel Benedek, Nov. 3, 1918; Schopflin, Nov. 3, 1918; Rippl-Ronai, Nov. 3, 1918; Istvan Csok, Nov. 3, 1918; R. Vambery, Nov. 3, 1918.

Hungarian Communists: Eugene Varga, later Soviet Chief Economist, Nov. 3 1918; George Lukacs, Marxist aesthetician, Nov. 3 1918; Lajos Barta, Nov-. 3, 1918; Bela Balazs, Nov. 3, 1918; G. Boloni, Nov. 3, 1918; Fogarasi, Nov. 3, 1918; Andor Gabor, Nov. 3, 1918; Bela Uitz, Nov. 3, 1918.

Rumanians: Popovici 1906, 1916, 1918; Stoica, Oct. 26, 1916.

Ruthenians: Zatkovic, Oct. 26, 1916.

Serbs: Jasa Tomic, March 1905; Musicky, March 1905; Stojan Protic, Jan. 2, 1909; Savic, 1917.

Slovenes: Adamic, Oct. 18, 1918.

Englishmen

Americans: Woodrow Wilson, Jan. 8, 1916; Lloyd George, Jan. 5, 1918; General Smuts, Jan. 5, 1918; Stephen Bonsal, April 12, 1919.

Frenchmen: E. Denis, Oct. 31, 1914.

Organizations:

Common Aims of Independent Mid-European Nations, Oct. 26, 1916. Ligue pour la Confederation Balcanique. Paris, Jan. 189i. Interallied Labor and Socialist Conference, Feb. 20, 1918.

IV. Preceding the Peace Conference of 1947.

Americans: F.D. Roosevelt, Summer, 1941; William Royall Tyler Sr. 1940/41; Dorothy Thompson, 1941; Louis Craig Cornish, 1922, 1925, 1947; Charles Seymour, 1921; J. T. Shotwell, 194a; P. J. Anthony, 1943; Ross J. S. Hoffman, 1944; Sumner Welles, 1944, 1945; C I. Janovsky, 1945.

Englishmen: Churchill at Teheran, 1943 and War Memoirs; Seton-Watson, Sr. 1943; Seton-Watson Jr., 1943; Macartney, 1939; Phillips Price, Oct. 1943; Christopher Robinson Bart, March 1940; Lancelot Lawton, Jan. 1940; H. A. Procter, May 1940.

Frenchmen:Tardieu, 1932.

Austrians: Renner, 1944/46; Coudenhove-Kalergi, 1943.

Czechs: Ex-president Benes, 1942, London; Necas, 1942; Prehala, Oct. 12, 1945.

Hungarians: Hantos, 1932; Gratz, 1932; D. Szabo, 1935; Zs. Moricz, 1940; Paul Teleki, 1940; Eckhardt, 1941; Mende, Oct. 1943; Ignotus, Oct. 1943; Rostas, Oct. 1943; Karolyi, Oct. 1943; B. T. Kardos, 1937, 1946; Geza Teleki, 1946; F. Wagner, 1938-.

Poles: Sikorsky, March 9, 1943; Gross, 1943, 1945; Racinsky, 1946/47. 154

Rumanians: Gafencu, l932; Tilea, Nov. 1942; Budeanu, Oct. 1943; Cornea, Oct. 1943; Cristea, Oct. 1943.

Serbs: Gavrilovic, Oct. 1943.

Slovaks: Pridavok, 1943; Minister President Hodza, 1935/36, 1942.

V. After the Peace Conference of 1947

Americans

Englishmen: Eden, Oct. t;, 1950; Harold Macmillan, 1947; S.D. Jackson, Oct. 24, 19J1 .

Austrians: Coudenhove-Kalergi, July-Aug. 1948; Renner, July 1948; Strausz Hupe, Winter, 1950; B. Wierer, 1960; Frankenstein, May, 1951.

Albanians: Dosti, April 16, 1951.

Baltic: Sidzikauskas, April 16, 1951; Pakstas, April 16, 1951; Blodniak, April 16, 1951.

Bulgarians: Todorov, Feb. 11, 1951; G. Dimitrov, Apr. 16, 1951; Vichegorov, Feb. 11, 1951; Fournadiev, Feb. 11, 1951; Matzankiev, Feb. 11, 1951.

Croats: Macek, Feb. 11, 1951, April 16, 1951; B. Radica, Feb. 11, 1951; Jelic, 1951.

Czechs: F. O Miksche, Nov. 1951; Majer, Feb. 11, 1951; J. Cerny, 1951; Jar. Hrazsky, 1950; Ripka, Nov. 6, ]950, Feb. 11, 1951.

Hungarians:F. Nagy, Feb. 11, '51; March '51, Apr. 16, '51, June 21, 22, 1951; B. Varga, Jan. 17, 1951, Apr. 16, 1951; Jaszi, July-Aug. 1948; Auer, Sept. 21, 1948, 1950, 1932; I. Kertesz, 1947; B. Bessenyey, Jan. 12, '51, Feb. 11, 1951; Borsody, Feb. 1949, Sept.-Oct. 1951; Eckhardt, Feb. 11, 1951; B. T. Kardos, 1951-1967; Barankovics, April 16, 1951; A. Gellert, Sept. 7, 1951; A. Radvansky, 1951; Mariaffy, Apr. 1951 Mate, Dec. 18, 1951; Emody, Sept. 1951; Csicsery-Ronay, June 21, 22, 1951; Karasz, June 21, 22, 1951; Szanto, Feb. 24, 1951; Vince Nagy, Feb. 11, March, Apr. 30, 1951; Pfeiffer, Feb. 11, 1951; Peyer, Feb. 11, 1951; Malnasi, 1961/63; Fabian, Feb. 11, 1951; Kozi-Horvath, Feb. 11, 1951, June 22, 1951; Kern, Nov. 1949; Geza Teleki, 1951; B. Szasz, 1929, 1966/67; E. Padanyi-Gulyas, 1963; F Wagner, 1945

Poles: Mikolajczyk, April 16, 1951; Seyda, April 16, 1951; Popiol, April 16, 1951.

Rumanians:Popa, Feb. 11, 1951; Costa, Feb. 11, 1951; Ghilezan, Feb. 11, 1951; Visoianu, Feb. 11, April 16, 1951; Radescu, Feb. 11, 1951; Davila, Assan, April 16, 1951; Coste, 1951.

Serbs:Jocic, March, Oct. 1951; Fotic, Feb. 11, 1951; Kosanovic, March, 1951; Pridavok, March, 1948, 1943, Jan. 11, 1952; Pokorny, Dec.

Slovaks: Lettrich, Feb. 11, 1951; Papanek, Feb. 11, 1951; Osusky, Feb. 11, 1951; Pridavok, March, 1948, 1943, Jan. 11, 1952; Pokorny, Dec. 1950; Durcansky, Dec. 1950; Kirschbaum, 1948-19D37.

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Slovenes: Krek, Feb. 11, 1951, April 16, 1951

Ukrainian: Korostovec, Spring, 1951.

Organizations:

Slovak National Council, March 1, 1948; Committee of Liberal Exiles, April 16, 19;,1; Central-Eastern European Committee, April 16, 1951; Committee for Eastern European Labor Center in Exile, April 16, 1951; Christian Democratic Union of Central Europe, April 16, 1951; Committee for Eastern and Central Europe of the European Movement, Oct. 1951; Danubian Club, London, July-Oct. 1943; Hungarian Social Democratic Party, 1943, American Hungarian Reform. Min. Assn. Sept. 10, 1943; Central European Federal Club, Oct. 12, Dec. 1945; International Peasant Union, May 8-10, 1950, March 16, 1951; Pope Pius XII, April 1951; Czech Federalist Democratic Party, second half of 1951; Hungarian National Council, Feb. 11, 1951; Memoranda to the Hungarian Peace Delegation of 1946, 1946/47; American-Hungarian Federation, 1951; Hungarian Peasant Assn. June 21, 22, 19o1; Hungarian Smallholders Party, May 8-10, 1950; Liberation Moveent of the Voivodina, Oct. 1951; Slovak League of America, May 1951.

A. Between 1789 and 1848/49

1789-Suppression of liberal movements by ancien regime police state.

1806-1813:Armed interference in Central and East European countries by Napoleon

1815-1816: Holy Alliance created at the Congress of Vienna by statesmen of ancien regimes and conservative diplomats. The status quo sanctioned by Czar Alexander I, King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia and Emperor Francis (Habsburg).

1810-1848: Era of Chancellor Metternich, West-German born statesman; Sedlnicky, Austrian police chief (1817-); and Count Kolowrath Austrian Minister of Interior (1825-).

1830-1831: Czar Nicolas I and Prince Pashkievicz, Russian Chief Commander, suppress the Polish revolution and occupy Warsaw.

1848-1849: Czar Nicholas I assists Emperor Francis Joseph in suppressing the uprising of Central European nations (Vienna, Prague and Buda-Pest). Governor Kossuth's proclamation of an independent Hungarian national state instead of a confederation of nations for which he later developed a plan in 1850-1865.

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B. Between 1849 and 1867

1849-1866: Rigid authoritarian governments under Emperor Francis Joseph I; Pillersdorf (1848); Schwarzenberg (1848-1852); A. Bach (1850-l860); and Schmerling (1860-) . Centralization was dominant.

C. Between 1867 and 1918: Dual Federalism of Austria-Hungary

1871-1879: Count Julius Andrassy opposed extension of federation to the Slavic nations (trialism).

1878: Conferences at San Stefano and Berlin where Balkan .affairs were arbitrarily decided. (Bismarck, Andrassy, Gorchakov, Disraeli, etc.)

1875-1890: Hungarian Minister President Coloman Tisza and son Stephen Tisza, (1900-l918) opposed the demands by other Danubian nations for national autonomy of federalism.

1879: The fatal Zweibund-treaty between the Monarchy and the German empire signed by Andrassy and Bismarck bringing German influence and power policy further into the Danubian, Balkan and Baltic areas, also provoking the Russian-French alliance.

1883-1903: Count Khuen-Hedervery, authoritarian Governor of Croatia.

1885: Bismarck expulses Poles from Prussia.

1888: Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany, enters his expansionist policies toward the East and Balkans.

1894:Czar Nicholas II enters into a French-Russian Alliance, later prolonged (Aug. 1:, 1911).

1897: .Meeting of Francis Joseph and Nicholas II in St. Petersburg.

1903: Peter I, King of Serbia, takes over power, asks help from Czar Nicholas I7 March 1910).

1906: Serbian. .Minister President Pashich asks help from Russia.

1908: Austria forces annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Count Aehrental refuses an international settlement. The Russian Izvolsky proposes Russian intervention in Central European and Balkan affairs.

1909: Nikolai Hartwig, Chief of Balkan Division of the Russian Foreign Office, becomes Russian ambassador to Belgrade.

1910: Nikita (Petrovich) assumes title of King of Montenegro.

1911: Aug. 11. Treaty Of French-Russian military alliance published.

1912: Aug. 9-15. French Poincare visits the Russian Czar Nicholas II.

1914: March 10. Military agreement between the Dual Monarchy, Germany and Italy.

1914: July, 3. Ultimatum to Serbia after murder of Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo.

1914: July 25/26. Mobilization in Austria-Hungary and Russia.

1914: Aug. 1. Mobilization in Germany.

D. Peace of 1919/20 and the following years leading up to World War II

1919-1920: Peace treaties of St. Germain, Neuilly, and Trianon with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria masterminded by Minister President Clemenceau, contrary to Wilson's principles of self-determination. Benes,

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Bratianu, Pashich "Balkanized" the area into small "national states" with no plebiscites.

1920-1938: Era of the "Little Entente," under French leadership.

1920-1938: Czech E. Benes, foreign minister and later President of Czechoslovakia, developed a centralized state. He did not follow through with his declared intent (1919) of making it "another Switzerland".

1924: Serbian Pashich centralized the new state in Belgrade and abolished the federal constitution of the "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes". National and religious minorities were considered second class citizens.

1929:King Alexander I and General Zivkovic created a military dictator ship in Yugoslavia which brought on the assassination of the king by the Croats.

1920-1940: Rumanian governments headed by General Avarescu Bratianu, Vaida Maniu, Iorga, and Goga forced centralization without national autonomies.

1920-1939: Witos, General Pilsudski, Beck, Moscicky headed governments in Poland.

1920-1940: Governments under Admiral Horthy, especially Minister President Count Bethlen (1921-31) overemphasized irredentism "revisionism". frontier, at the expense of social and agrarian reform, industrialization, self-government and good relations with neighboring nations.

1938: March 13. Hitler invaded Austria; supported Nazi parties in Hungary, Rumania, Croatia, Slovakia, Sub-Carpathia, etc.

1938: Sept. 29. Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, Daladier agreed in Munich to detach the German Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia.

1938: Nov. 2. Ribbentrop and Ciano determined the frontiers of Slovakia and Hungary in the first Viennese Arbitration Award.

1939: Aug. 2.-l. Ribbentrop-Molotov treaty signed in Moscow in the presence of Stalin; partition of Poland and the Baltic states between Germany and the Soviet Union.

1939: Sept. 1. With Hitler's invasion of Poland, World War II began.

1940: Aug. 30. Partition of Transylvania by Ribbentrop and Ciano in the second Viennese Arbitration Award.

1940; Oct. 8. "Training,, troops sent to Rumania by Hitler.

1941: April 6. Yugoslavia invaded by Hitler.

1944: Sept. 3. Red Army reached the Danube.

E. Peace Treaties of 1947 and Years Following

1941:American Lend-Lease Act giving unconditional assistance to Stalin.

1945:Conference at Yalta dominated by Stalin. The four power zones that later formed the basis of Iron Curtains were established.

1947:Paris Peace treaties with Rumania, Hungary and Bulgaria: heavy pressure by Molotov under instructions from Stalin. Western powers yielded.

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1947:June. Western allied powers moved out of East Europe while the Red Army stayed.

1948: Stalinst take-over of East European countries: Rakosi in Hungary, Gottwald in Czechoslovakia, Gheorghiu-Dej and Anna Pauker in Rumania, Cyrankiewicz in Poland, etc.

1948:Tito's break with Stalin. Federation with Bulgaria prohibited by Stalin.

1956: Oct.-Nov. Polish and Hungarian uprising. Khruschev's military intervention in Budapest.

1959:-"Liberalization" in Communist regimes. Tendency toward normalizing relations with neighbors; "peace and security" remain an illusion without the consent of interested nations, self-government, neutralization and federation.

(1) A survey of the federal plans before 1918: Robert A. Kann: The multinational empire. Nationalism and national reform in the Habsburg monarchy, 1848-1918. New York 1950. I-II vol. and Rudolf Schlesinger: Federalism in Central and Eastern Europe. New York, 1945.

(2) Talbot Kardos: From Kossuth's Unknown Federalist Papers. Publ. in the present volume.

(3) Aurel Popovici: Die Vereinigten Staaten von Gross-Oesterreich. Leipzig. 1906.

( 4) Karl Renner : Der Kampf der Oesterreichischen Nationen um den Staat. Wien. 1902 and 1918.

(5) See chapter "La Lutte pour l'Autriche Federal" in E. Benes, Le probleme Autrichien et la question Tcheque. Paris, 1908, p. 312.

(6) Lloyd George: "Pronouncements in January 1918," and "Memoirs of the Peace Conference." New Has-en. Yale Univ. Press. 1939, vol. I, p. 51.

(7) President Wilson: Message to Congress January 8, 1918, point 10. Messages to Congress on February 12, 1918, July 4 and September 27, 1918

(8) ìWhat really happened at Paris, Story of the Peace Conference 1818-19î. Ed. by Col. E. M. House and Charles Seymour, New York, Scribner,

(9) The mere titles and subjects of these petitions fill an entire book: H. Truhart: Volkerbundpetitionen der Minderheiten. Stuttgart. 1935, p. 180, and several later editions.

(10) Balogh, Arthur. L'Action de la Societe des Nations en matiere de protection des minorites. Paris, 1937, 186 p.

(11) Macartney, Carlile Aylmer: National states and national minorities. London, Oxford Univ Press. 1934, 553 p.

(12) Teleki's messages were published by Minister John Pelenyi in the Journal of Modern History (Chicago, June 1964). (See also Studies 1966, vol. I, no. 3, p. 36.)

(13) Theodor Schieder: The expulsion of the German population from the territory East of the Oder-Neisse line, Czechoslovakia, Rumania. Hungary, Yugoslavia etc. Bonn 1954-1960. Vol. I-VI

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Toward a New Central Europe