Transylvania - The Roots of Ethnic Conflict

The Revolution of 1848--49 in Transylvania and the Polarization of National Destinies

1. There are only a few books, in a Western language, on the pre-1848 history of Transylvania. Romanian views are militantly presented in Cornelia Bodea, The Romanians' Struggle for Unification, 1834--1849 (Bucharest: Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970), and Constantin Daicoviciu and Miron Constantinescu, eds., Breve historie de la Transylvanie (Bucharest: Editions de l'Académie de la République Socialiste de Roumanie, 1965). The best interpretation by a Hungarian historian, in a Western language, is László Makkai, Histoire de Transylvanie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1946). Keith Hitchins, The Romanian National Movement in Transylvania, 1780--1849 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969) deals sympathetically with the Romanian struggle for cultural and political identity.

2. László Kõváry, Erdélyország statistikája [The Statistics of Transylvania] (Kolozsvár, 1847), p. 197.

3. Istvan Deak, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848--1849 (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1979), p. 127 et passim. Also, by the same author, "István Széchenyi, Miklós Wesselényi, Lajos Kossuth and the Problem of Romanian Nationalism," Austrian History Yearbook, vols. 12--13, pt. 1(1976--77), pp. 69--77.

4. There are a number of substantial printed documentary collections on the Transylvanian events of 1848--49, from which most of the information for this paper has been drawn. They are: Silviu Dragomir, Studii si documente privitoare la revolutia Românilor din Transilvania în anii 1848--49, [Studies and Documents Concerning the Rumanian Revolution in Transylvania in 1848--49] 4 vols. (Sibiu-Cluj: Cartea Româneasca din Cluj, 1944--46); Elek Jakab, Szabadságharczunk történetéhez: Visszaemlékezések 1848--1849-re [Concerning the History of Our War of Independence: Recollections 1848--1849] (Budapest: Rautmann Frigyes, 1880); László Kõváry, ed., Okmánytár az 1848--49-ki erdélyi eseményekhez [Archival Collection Concerning the Transylvania Events of 1848--49] (Kolozsvár: Demjén László, 1861); and Kossuth Lajos összes munkái, [The Complete Works of Louis Kossuth] 11 vols. (Budapest, 1948--66), vols. 12--15.

5. See Silviu Dragomir, Avram Iancu (Bucharest: Editura stiintifica, 1965).

6. The best source on the Transylvanian peasants is Zsolt Trócsányi, Az erdélyi parasztság története, 1790--1849 [The History of the Peasantry in Transylvania, 1790--1849] (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1956).

From Horea-Closca to 1867: Some Observations

1. For information on the Patents, see C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire 1790--1918 (New York: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 127--28, and n. 1; C. A. Macartney, ed., The Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (New York: Walker, 1970), p. 176.

2. For example, the first Hungarian law to grant serfs the right of free migration was Law LXX of 1298. See, for a discussion, Charles d'Eszlary, Histoire des Institions publiques hongroises, 3 vols. (Paris: Librairie Marcel Riviere et Cie, 1959--65), 2:345 and n. 175, 3:313.

3. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, p. 177.

4. Macartney, Habsburg Empire, p. 127.

5. E. H. Balázs, "Die Lage der Bauernschaft und die Bauernbewegungen 1780--87; zur Bauernpolitik des Aufgeklärten Absolutismus," Acta Historica 3, no. 3 (1956): 324. Information in the remainder of this paragraph, unless indicated otherwise, is drawn from Balázs, ibid., pp. 299--300, 314--18, 320, 325.

6. His decision in this matter generally stood until 1868. For a commentary and the text of his decision forwarded to the State Council on October 15, see Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, pp. 179--80.

7. Joseph had toyed with this plan as early as 1783. Balazs, op. cit., p. 321. It was held for November 1, 1790, but Joseph died in February.

8. This was a complex matter, and opinions vary. See for a sample, Macartney, Habsburg Empire, pp. 129--30; Victor L. Tapié, The Rise and Fall of the Habsburg Monarchy, trans. Stephan Hardman (New York: Praeger, 1971), p. 215; Ernst Wangermann, From Joseph II to the Jacobin Trials: Government Policy and Public Opinion in the Habsburg Dominions in the Period of the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), pp. 31--5. Joseph ardently wished to tax the produce from the allodial, i.e., the immediate estates of the nobles, and he made a good argument to Chancellor Pálffy that the peasants would benefit; see Balázs, op. cit., pp. 321--22.

9. For an erudite explanation of this constitutional principle with examples, see d'Eszlary, op. cit., 3:38--51.

10. Balazs, op. cit., p. 48.

11. Béla K. Király, Hungary in the Late Eighteenth Century: The Decline of Enlightened Despotism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 173; Macartney, Habsburg Empire, p. 141 and n. 1; Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, p. 177; C. M. Knatchbull-Hugesson, The Political Evolution of the Hungarian Nation, 2 vols. (London: Nation Review Office, 1908), 1:228 and ns. 2, 3.

12. Friedrich Walter, "Aufklärung und Politik am Beispele österreiches" Österreich in Geschichte und Literatur 9, no. 7 (September, 1965): 352.

13. Balazs, op. cit., p. 300. Information in the remainder of the paragraph, ibid., pp. 299--300.

14. Henrik Marczali, Magyarország története II. József korában, [The History of Hungary during the Reign of Joseph II] 3 vols. (Budapest: A. M. Tud. Akadémia Könyvkiadó-Hivatala, 1885--88), 3:27; Bálint Hóman and Gyula Szekfû, Magyar történet, [Hungarian History] 5 vols., 7th ed. (Budapest: Magyar Királyi Egyetemi Nyomda, 1941--43), 5:137.

15. Marczali, op. cit., 3:27--28; László Makkai, Erdély története [The History of Transylvania] (Budapest: Renaissance könyvkiadóvállalat, 1944), p. 494.

16. Marczali, op. cit., p. 28.

17. Makkai, op. cit., p. 494.

18. Marczali, op. cit., 3:31.

19. Makkai, op. cit., p. 495.

20. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, p. 201.

21. Marczali, op. cit.

22. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., vol. 5, quote 136, 137; see also 138, 139.

23. d'Eszlary, op. cit., 3:408.

24. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, p. 199.

25. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:137. Ignácz Acsády mentions Temes as well as Hunyad and Zaránd counties as being greatly troubled by this problem of banditry. A magyar jobbágyság története, [The History of Serfdom in Hungary], 2nd ed. (Budapest: Imre Faust, 1944), p. 412.

26. Marczali, op. cit., 3:31.

27. Ibid., p. 22; For the problem of the robber bands with a Marxist slant, see Balázs, op. cit., pp. 303--04.

28. Marczali, op. cit., 3:37.

29. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:136, quote 139.

30. Acsády, op. cit., p. 412; Marczali, op. cit., 3:21.

31. Acsády, op. cit., pp. 412--13; Marczali, op. cit., 3:22--23.

32. Marczali, op. cit., 3:23.

33. Ibid., p. 24.

34. Acsády, op. cit., p. 413.

35. Marczali, op. cit., 3:25.

36. Ibid., p. 30.

37. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:138.

38. Marczali, op. cit., 3:33.

39. Ibid., Acsády, op. cit.

40. Makkai, op. cit.; Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit.; Balázs, op. cit., p. 307. Balázs records that the nobility also "grabbed up arms and inflicted serious losses." on the rebels at Torockó (Rimetea) as well as at Déva.

41. Marczali, op. cit., 3:32. The information on the course of the rebellion through Horea's capture is found in this source, pp. 31--35.

42. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit.; Makkai, op. cit.

43. Makkai, op. cit., Balázs, op. cit., p. 311.

44. Marczali, op. cit., 3:33; Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:137, Makkai, op. cit.

45. Marczali, op. cit., 3:29--30; Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., p. 138; Acsády, op. cit.

46. Marczali, op. cit., 3:33.

47. Ibid., p. 31.

48. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:137.

49. Acsády, op. cit.

50. Marczali, op. cit., 3:29.

51. Acsády, op. cit.

52. Makkai, op. cit.

53. Marczali, op. cit.; Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit.

54. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:138; Balázs, op. cit.

55. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit.; Balázs, op. cit., p. 309. The Supplex Libellus Valachorum was a request for the recognition of the Rumanians as a "fourth" nation coequal with the predominately Hungarian nobility, the Saxon patricians, and the once-powerful Székelys in Transylvania. Joseph's successor, Leopold II, rejected it, in part, due to the excesses of the 1784 rebellion.

56. Balázs, op. cit., p. 308.

57. Information in this paragraph, ibid., pp. 307--11.

58. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit.; Marczali, op. cit., 3:33.

59. Makkai, op. cit.

60. Marczali, op. cit., 3:34.

61. Ibid., p. 33.

62. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit.

63. Ibid., p. 139.

64. Ibid., pp. 426--27; Zoltán I. Tóth, Kossuth és a nemzetiségi kérdés 1848--1849-ben [Kossuth and the Nationalities Question in 1848--1849], in Emlékkönyv Kossuth Lajos születésének 150. évfordulójára [Commemorative Book on the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Louis Kossuth], 2 vols. (Budapest: 1952), 2:320.

65. As an example, see Andrei Otetea, "The Rumanians and the Disintegration of the Habsburg Monarchy," Austrian History Yearbook 3, pt. 2 (1967): 450--76.

66. Keith Hitchins, Orthodoxy and Nationality: Andreiu Saguna and the Rumanians of Transylvania, 1846--1873 (Cambridge, Mass., and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 55--60, 65, 70--71.

67. Ibid., p. 315.

68. Ibid., pp. 70--71.

69. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:404.

70. Ibid., p. 405.

71. Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The Rumanians and the Habsburg Monarchy" Austrian History Yearbook 3, pt. 2 (1967): 430--49.

72. Macartney, Habsburg Empire, pp. 727--28.

73. An interesting example of Kossuth's pre-1848 thought as well as his historicism is available in English. See the account of Kossuth's legal arguments for the reincorporation of the "Partium," those areas of Inner Hungary adjacent to Transylvania and illegally attached to Transylvania by the Habsburgs (namely, Zaránd, Kraszna, Middle-Szolnok, and Kõvár) in Great Britain, Parliament, House of Commons Sessional Papers, vol. 58 (1851), "Correspondence Relative to the Affairs of Hungary, 1847--1849, Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty, August 15, 1850," pp. 22--29.

74. See, for example, Istvan Deak, "Comments," Austrian History Yearbook, 3, pt. 1 (1967): 308.

75. Cornelia Bodea, "Comments," Austrian History Yearbook 12--13, pt. 1 (1976--1977): 55; Radu R. Florescu, "Debunking a Myth: The Magyar-Romanian National Struggle of 1848--1849," Austrian History Yearbook 3, pt. 1 (1967): 83.

76. C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and its Consequences 1919--1937 (London: Oxford University Press, 1937, reprint ed., 1965), p. 257.

77. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:398.

78. Mihály Horváth, Magyarország függetlenségi harczának története 1848 és 1849-ben [The History of the 1848--1849 Hungarian War of Independence], 3 vols. (Geneva: Miklós Puky, 1865), 1:43.

79. Ibid., pp. 40, 62.

80. György Spira, A magyar forradalom 1848--49-ben [The Hungarian Revolution of 1848--1849], (Budapest: Gondolat, 1959), p. 148.

81. Horváth, op. cit., 1:44--46.

82. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:407.

83. Horváth, op. cit., 1:30--31.

84. Spira, op. cit., pp. 136--41.

85. Hóman and Szekfû, op. cit., 5:406--07.

National Oppression or Social Oppression? The Nature of Hungarian-Rumanian Relations in Transylvania

1. On these developments see especially Bulcsu Veress's study in the present volume on the international legal order and Rumanian minority policies.

2. Quoted in Hans Kohn, The Habsburg Empire, 1804--1918 (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1961), p. 110.

3. The reference here is to the works of such poets as Bálint Balassi (1554--94) and Sebestyén Tinódi-Lantos (c. 1505/10--1586), such Magyar-language historians as István Benczédi-Székely (c. 1510--c.1563) and Gáspár Heltai (c. 1490/1510--1574), and such noted Protestant preachers as Mátyás Dévai-Bíró (?--1545), Imre Ozorai (16th century), Gál Huszár (?--1575), Péter Méliusz-Juhász (c. 1536--1572), and Ferenc Dávid (?--1579). Cf. Tibor Klaniczay, József Szauder, and Miklós Szabolcsi, History of Hungarian Literature (Budapest: Corvina Press, 1964), pp. 34--53; S. B. Vardy, Modern Hungarian Historiography (Boulder and New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), pp. 13--14.

4. See the papers of the Transylvanian Diet between 1540 and 1690 in Monumenta comitialia regni Transsylvaniae --- Erdélyi országgyûlési emlékek [Notes and Documents of the Transylvanian Diets] 21 vols., ed. Sándor Szilágyi (Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1875--98).

5. See A budai basák magyarnyelvû levelezése, 1553--1589 [The Magyar Language

Correspondence of the Pashas of Buda, 1553--1589], ed. Sándor Takáts, Ferenc Eckhart, and Gyula Szekfû (Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1915); and its continuation by Gustav Bayerle, Ottoman Diplomacy in Hungary: Letters from the Pashas of Buda, 1590--93 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972).

6. On my earlier views regarding the workability of Eötvös's proposals on the national minority question see S. B. Vardy, "Baron Joseph Eötvös: The Political Profile of a Liberal Hungarian Thinker and Statesman." (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, 1967); idem, "Baron Joseph Eötvös on Liberalism and Nationalism," Studies for a New Central Europe, ser. 2, no. 1 (New York: 1967--68), pp. 65--73; idem, "Baron Joseph Eötvös: Statesman, Thinker, Reformer," Duquesne Review 13, no. 2 (Fall 1968): 107--19; and idem, "The Origins of Jewish Emancipation in Hungary: The Role of Baron Joseph Eötvös," Ungarn-Jahrbuch, vol. 7 (Munich, 1976), pp. 137--66, also reprinted in Duquesne University Studies in History (Pittsburgh, 1978).

Part Three

1. Sherman D. Spector, Rumania at the Paris Peace Conference: A Study of the Diplomacy of Ioan I. C. Bratianu (New York, 1962), p. 15.

2. Charles and Barbara Jelavich, The Establishment of the Balkan National States 1804--1920 (Seattle, 1977), p. 246.

3. Jelavich and Jelavich, op. cit., p. 221.

4. Friedrich Stieve, Isvolsky and the World War (New York, 1926), p. 190.

5. Fritz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (New York, 1967), pp. 42--45; Arthur J. May, The Passing of the Habsburg Monarchy 1914-1918 (New York, 1966), 1:208.

6. Jenõ László, Erdély sorsa az uniótól Trianonig [The Fate of Transylvania from the Union to Trianon] (Budapest, 1940), p. 75.

7. Ferenc Pölöskei, "Tisza István nemzetiségi politikája az elsõ világháború elõestéjén" [The nationality policy of István Tisza on the Eve of World War I], Századok [Centuries] 104, no. 1 (1970): 14--15.

8. Ibid., pp. 19--20; Péter Hanák, ed., Magyarország Története 1890--1918 [The History of Hungary 1890--1918] (Budapest, 1978), 2:853--54; Vasile Netea, The Union of Transylvania with Rumania (Bucharest, 1968), p. 32.

9. "Károlyi Riadója" [The Alarm of Károlyi], Magyarország [Hungary], Jan. 2, 1914.

10. Magyarország, Jan. 4, 1914.

11. The Apáthy Papers; Quart. Hung. 2456, Dec. 7, 1913, Széchenyi Library Archives, Hungary.

12. I. Diószegi, "The Independence Opposition and the Monarchy's Foreign Policy (1900--1914)," in D. Nemes et al., Etudes Hongroises 1975 (Budapest, 1975), 2:228--32.

13. Arthur J. May, The Habsburg Monarchy 1867--1914, (New York, 1968), p. 443.

14. Benedek Jancsó, A román irredentista mozgalmak története [The History of Rumanian Irredentist Movements] (Budapest, 1920), p. 303.

15. May, The Habsburg Monarchy, p. 470.

16. Joachim Remak, Sarajevo (New York, 1959), pp. 33--35.

17. Spector, op. cit., 26; Jenõ Horváth, Felelõsség a világháborúért és a békeszerzõdésért [Responsibility for the War and the Peace Treaty] (Budapest, 1939), pp. 370--71.

18. Kenneth J. Calder, Britain and the Origins of the New Europe, 1914--1918 (Cambridge, 1976), p. 39; Spector, op. cit., p. 34.

19. Calder, op. cit., p. 40; Spector, op. cit., p. 28.

20. Z. A. B. Zeman, The Gentlemen Negotiators (New York, 1971), p. 80.

21. Peter Pastor, Hungary between Wilson and Lenin: The Hungarian Revolution of 1918--1919 and the Big Three (New York, 1976), p. 15.

22. Hanák, op. cit., p. 1116; Jancsó, op. cit., p. 414.

23. Jancsó, op. cit., p. 415.

24. Magyarország, Nov. 9, 1914.

25. Norman Stone, The Eastern Front (New York, 1975), p. 273.

26. Spector, op. cit., pp. 35--37.

27. Glenn E. Torrey, "Rumania and the Belligerents 1914--1916," in Walter Laquaur and George L. Mosse, eds., 1914 The Coming of the First World War (New York, 1966), p. 184.

28. Miron Constantinescu, Etude d'Histoire Transylvain (Bucharest, 1970), p. 92; Vasile Netea, op. cit., p. 38.

29. Stone, op. cit., pp. 274--280.

30. Jelavich and Jelavich, op. cit., p. 293.

31. Constantinescu, op. cit., p. 62.

32. The Apáthy Papers Quart. Hung. 2459, Sept. 30, 1917.

33. Sándor Wekerle to István Apáthy, Dec. 4, 1917, Papers of the Prime Minister, K26, M.E. 1918, 8242 Res. XVI, National Archives, Hungary.

34. Papers of the Prime Minister, K 26, M.E. 1918, XVI 3949, 9/MT, March 7, 1918; copy in: Emma Iványi, ed., Magyar minisztertanácsi jegyzõkönyvek az elsõ világháború korából 1914--1918 [Minutes of the Hungarian Council of Ministers during World War I, 1914--1918] (Budapest, 1960), pp. 415--17; for German aims in Rumania see Fischer, op. cit., 515--23.

35. Lászlo, op. cit., p. 95; Jancsó, op. cit., 450; the Austro-Hungarian military staff wanted a strip seventy percent larger than favored by the ministerial council, see Vilmos Nagybaczoni Nagy, A Románia elleni hadjárat, 1916-1917 [The Campaign against Rumania, 1916--1917] (Budapest, 1922), p. 120; a Hungarian work published in the early 1960s claims that the Hungarians intended to annex considerably large territories. This claim does not appear in a recent publication by the same author, see József Galántai, Magyarország az elsõ világháborúban [Hungary in World War I] (Budapest, 1964), p. 304; Hanák, op. cit., p. 1186.

36. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, June 15, 1918, Papers of the Prime Minister, K 26, M.E. 1918, 9249 Res. XVI, National Archives, Hungary.

37. United States, Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1918 Supplement I, The World War (Washington, 1933), vol. 1, p. 307.

38. The Apáthy Papers, Quart. Hung 2455, manuscript of "Erdély az összeomlás után" [Transylvania after the collapse].

39. Keith Hitchins, "Romanian Socialists and the Nationality Problem in Hungary, 1903--1918," Slavic Review 35, no. 1 (March 1976): 87.

40. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, Nov. 5, 1918, K 27, Mt. jk., National Archives, Hungary.

41. György Ránki, ed., Magyarország Története 1918--1919, 1919--1945 [The History of Hungary, 1918--1919, 1919--1945] (Budapest, 1976), p. 93; Pastor, op. cit., pp. 61--65.

42. Zoltán Szász, "Az erdélyi román polgárság szerepérõl 1918 õszén" [The Activities of the Rumanian Bourgeoisie in Transylvania during the Fall of 1918], Századok [Centuries] (1972): 321; for similar facts but different interpretation, see Constantinescu, op. cit., p. 108.

43. Constantinescu, op. cit., p. 103; Netea, op. cit., p. 46.

44. Constantinescu, op. cit., p. 111.

45. The Rumanian National Council to the Hungarian National Council, Nov. 9, 1918, Papers of the Minister without portfolio, in Charge of the Preparation for Self-determination of the Nationalities Living in Hungary, K 40, M.E., National Archives, Hungary.

46. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Nov. 28, 1918, National Archives, Hungary.

47. Gábor Vermes, "The Agony of Federalism in Hungary under the Károlyi Regime, 1918--1919," East European Quarterly 6, no. 4 (1972): 496.

48. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, Nov. 28, 1918.

49. For an example, see László, op. cit., p. 117; for a criticism of interwar historiography on this topic, see György Litván, "Magyar gondolat --- szabad gondolat" [Hungarian Thought --- Free Thought] (Budapest, 1978), p. 114.

50. For the Rumanian interpretation see Miron Constantinescu, "The Act of Union, 1st December 1918," in Office of Information and Documentation in Social and Political Sciences, Highlights of Rumanian History (Bucharest, 1975), 1:77.

51. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, Nov. 28, 1918.

52. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Nov. 29, 1918.

53. Erdõdi Nemzeti Tanács to Jászi, and reply, Dec. 3, 1918, Papers of the Minister without Portfolio, K 40, M.E., National Archives, Hungary.

54. Minutes of the Council of Ministers. K 27, Mt. jk., Dec. 28, 1918.

55. Spector, op. cit., p. 93.

56. Mária Ormos, "Az ukrajnai francia intervencióról és hatásairól Közép--Európában, 1918 október--1919 április" [The Impact of the French Intervention in the Ukraine on Central Europe, October 1918--April 1919], Történelmi Szemle [Historical Review] 1977, nos. 3--4, p. 423, n. 56.

57. Zsuzsa L. Nagy, "Magyar határviták a békekonferencián 1919-ben" [Debates Over Hungary's Borders at the Peace Conference in 1919], Történelmi Szemle, 1978, nos. 3-4, p. 452.

58. Böhm to Jászi, Dec. 5, 1918, Papers of the Minister without Portfolio, K 40, M.E., and Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Dec. 17, 1918.

59. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Dec. 4, 1918; Batthyány to Apáthy, Dec. 7, 1918, The Apáthy Papers, Quart. Hung. 2455.

60. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Dec. 8, 1918.

61. Endre Koréh, "Erdélyért." [For Transylvania] A székely hadosztály és dandár története, 1918--1919 [The History of the Transylvanian Division and Brigade, 1918--1919] (Budapest, 1929), p. 35.

62. Lászlo, op. cit., p. 120.

63. The Apáthy Papers, "Erdély az összeomlás után."

64. Ránki, op. cit., p. 113--17.

65. Ibid., p. 96.

66. Böhm to Jászi. Jan. 29, 1919, Papers of the Minister without Portfolio, K 40, M.E.

67. Peter Pastor, "Franco-Russian Intervention in Russia and the Vix Ultimatum: Background to Hungary's Loss of Transylvania," The Canadian-American Review of Hungarian Studies, vol. 1 nos. 1--2, 1974, p. 14. This essay is based on unpublished archival sources from the French Military Archives and the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Paris.

68. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Dec. 18 and Dec. 19, 1919; The Apáthy Papers "Erdély az összeomlás után."

69. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Jan. 27, 1919.

70. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Jan. 13, 1919.

71. Pastor, Hungary between Wilson and Lenin pp. 88--90; Ormos, op. cit., p. 422 and 424, fn. 57.

72. Jean Bernachot, ed., Les armées alliées en Orient après l'Armistice de 1918-Comptes-rendus mensuels adressés par le commandant en chef des armées alliées en Orient, á l'etatmajor de l'armée á Paris de decembre 1918 á Octobre 1920 (Paris, 1972), p. 164.

73. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Jan. 23, 1919.

74. Minutes of the Council of Ministers, K 27, Mt. jk., Jan. 21, 1919.

75. Spector, op. cit., p. 80.

76. Jancsó, op. cit., p. 489.

77. Papers of the Minister without Portfolio, Jan. 29, 1919.

78. Koréh, op. cit., p. 198.

79. Pastor, Hungary between Wilson and Lenin, pp. 122--23; Ormos, op. cit., p. 431.

Primary sources from the Hungarian archives were collected during my stay in Hungary on an International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX) grant, January--July, 1978. I am grateful for the Board's material support. For their comments on drafts of this essay I wish to thank Professors Joseph Held and Gábor Vermes.

Transylvania - The Roots of Ethnic Conflict