Transylvania - The Roots of Ethnic Conflict

A Chronology of Transylvanian History

120,000-- 100,000 B.C.	Neanderthal man appears on the territory of the future Transylvania [1]
8,000-- 5,000 B.C.	Archaeological evidence from Péterfalva (Petresti), Erõsd (Ariusd), and elsewhere indicates that the Stone-Age stage of development has been reached in Transylvania.
1,700 B.C.	People of the Wietenberg culture with rudimentary political organization inhabit this territory.
500 B.C.	Herodotus mentions that Transylvania is inhabited by Agathyrs, Scythians, and Celts.
60 B.C.	Burebista's Getic-Dacian domain includes the future Transylvania.
106 A.D.	Roman emperor Trajan destroys the Dacian domain of Decebalus, and its territory becomes a Roman province for the next 165 years. (all subsequent dates will be A.D.)
271	Emperor Aurelian evacuates the Romans from Dacia, and the Goths gain possession of its territory.
376	The Huns push the Goths out and establish their own dominance.
453	Attila, ruler of the Huns, dies and his empire disintegrates. For a brief period the territory of Transylvania is controlled by the Gepids.
567	Khan Bajan of the Avars pushes the Gepids out of this area. Besides the Avars, traces of Slavic settlements appear after this date.
797	Near Tulln the Franks defeat the Avars. According to the Kézai Chronicle it is at this time that the Székely remnants flee east and settle in Transylvania.
812	Bulgarian influence replaces Avar rule as Khan Krum pushes the frontiers of his domain all the way north to the Tisza (Tisa, Theiss) River.
896	As the seven Magyar tribes sweep into the Carpathian Basin, the tribe of the gyula (military warlord) and the tribe of the kende (titular ruler) occupy the area that will become Transylvania. The gyepü (military frontier) defense system is established and henceforth Transylvania becomes the organizational center of defense activities against threats from the East. Military pressure from the Petchenegs is its first challenge.
895-1091	The Petchenegs control most of the area immediately east and south of Transylvania. These territories will in the future become Moldavia, Wallachia, and Dobruja (Dobrogea).
997-1038	The reign of István I (Saint Stephen) transforms the Hungarian kingdom into a centralized state and imposes Western Christianity on the inhabitants.
1002-08	Saint Stephen establishes the bishopric of Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Karlsburg), consolidates his hold over Transylvania, and defeats the decentralizing efforts of the Transylvanian leaders Gyula and of Ajtony.
1091	Cumans (Kumans) in alliance with Byzantium defeat the Petchenegs and acquire dominant control over the lowlands east and north of the Danube and south and east of the Carpathians. Cuman control over this area lasts until the great Mongol (Tatar) invasion of 1241. Cuman incursions into Transylvania occur sporadically after 1068 but are unable to wrest the area from Hungarian control because László I decisively defeats the Cumans near Orsova (Orsova) in 1091.
1111	Hungarian documents mention for the first time the title vajda (voivode) of Transylvania, specifically "Mercurius princeps."
1143	Géza II (1141--62) invites Saxon (German) settlers to populate those areas of Transylvania that are important to the defense of the kingdom and are not yet peopled by the Székelys and Magyars.
1202	The Monastery of Kerc (Cirta) is founded in Szeben (Sibiu) County.
1209	In the Fogaras (Fagaras) area of southeastern Transylvania, the existence of Vlach (Rumanian) settlements is mentioned in royal documents for the first time.
1211	To counter Cuman incursions, Andrew II (1205--35) settles Teutonic Knights in the Barcaság (Bîrsa) area of southeastern Transylvania.
1224	The Székely population migrates from southeastern Transylvania to the eastern corner of Transylvania. Their former area of settlement in southeastern Transylvania is now settled by Saxons (Germans) who are guaranteed certain privileges, autonomy, and exemptions by the Andreanum of 1224.
1225	Andrew II of Hungary expels the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania after they attempt to set up a state within a state. However, the other German settlements continue to receive royal support and extensive rights to autonomy.
1227	Mention is made of the establishment by Prince Béla of the first Cuman bishopric with its center at Civitas Milcovie (Odobesti today) east of the Carpathians in Moldavia.
1234	Papal bull mentions that in the southern part of Moldavia and the eastern part of Wallachia there is a significant Vlach (Rumanian) Orthodox population.
1241--42	The Mongol (Tatar) invasion sweeps through Transylvania, devastates the land, and depopulates the countryside. The invasion also destroys and scatters the Cuman settlements south and east of the Carpathians.
1247--91	Saint Michael's Cathedral is constructed at Gyulafehérvár; it is one of the most important Romanesque-style structures in Transylvania.
1266	Székelys repopulate the Aranyos (Aries, Aranyosch) area and Saxons repopulate the area of Medgyes (Medias, Mediasch) to compensate for Tatar devastations.
1279	Cumans are permanently settled along the Körös (Cris,), Temes (Timis, Temesch), and Maros (Mures, Mieresch) rivers as well as the Hungarian plains between the Tisza (Tisa, Theiss) and the Danube rivers.
1284--85	A Tatar (Mongol) incursion sweeps through Transylvania.
1288	First mention is made of a general conclave of the nobility (congregatio generalis) in Transylvania.
1291	Andrew III holds a meeting at Gyulafehérvár, (Alba Iulia, Karlsburg) where for the first time Vlachs (Rumanians) are also present besides the Hungarian nobility and the representatives of the Székelys and the Saxons.
1301	Andrew III, last king in the line of Árpád, dies.
1344	The general conclave (congregatio generalis) of the Székelys in eastern Transylvania is first mentioned in royal documents.
1348--49	The plague devastates Transylvania and other parts of the Hungarian kingdom.
1352	The Crimean Tatars make an incursion into Transylvania but Vajda (Voivode) Endre Lackfi defeats them.
1354--1444	Saint Michael's Church is constructed at Kolozsvár (Klausenburg, Cluj). It is one of the most important Gothic-style structures in Transylvania.
1366	Louis I begins a campaign to convert the Vlach (Rumanian) population to Roman Catholicism.
1420	First major Ottoman Turkish incursion into Transylvania.
1437	Antal Budai Nagy leads a major peasant revolt at Bábolna (Bobîlna). In response to this social strife the Hungarian nobility, the Saxons, and the Székelys establish the Union of Three Nations (Unio Trium Nationum).
1441	János Hunyadi becomes vajda (voivode) of Transylvania and in this same year he defeats the Ottoman Turks near Marosszentimre (Sîntimbru), Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia), and Nagyszeben (Hermannstadt, Sibiu).
1446	János Hunyadi becomes regent of Hungary.
1456	János Hunyadi stops the Ottoman Turks led by Mohammed II at Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade).
1467	Matthias Corvinus (Hunyadi) crushes the revolt of the Transylvanian nobility.
1479	The Battle of Kenyérmezõ (Cîmpul Pîinii) takes place where the armies of István Báthory and Pál Kinizsi defeat Ottoman forces.
1482	The Saxons establish their own self-governing institution, the Saxon Universitas.
1490	Matthias Corvinus dies.
1493--95	Ottoman incursions devastate some areas of Transylvania.
1499	Wladislaw II issues a letter of exemptions in which he reaffirms the freedoms and privileges of the Székelys in eastern Transylvania.
1505	Székely conclaves in Agyagfalva (Lutita) and Székelyudvarhely (Odorheiu) establish the rules of appeal within the Székely judicial system.
1510	János Zápolya becomes vajda (voivode) of Transylvania.
1514	The peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa sweeps through central Hungary and has reverberations throughout Transylvania. János Zápolya, voivode of Transylvania, decisively defeats the peasant army near Temesvár (Timisoara) and has Dózsa executed.
1523	The first significant Orthodox bishopric in Transylvania is established at Rév (Vadul Crisului).
1526	Suleiman II (the Magnificent) defeats the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohács. Louis II, king of Hungary, and many of the nobility and higher clergy lose their lives in the battle. Consequently, the Hungarian kingdom is opened to Ottoman conquest and depredation. The defeat also sets the stage for years of internal strife as the struggle for the succession pits János Zápolya, voivode of Transylvania, against Ferdinand II of the House of Habsburg.
1538	The Treaty of Várad ([Nagyvárad], Oradea, Grosswardein) temporarily terminates hostilities, leaving western Hungary under Ferdinand, while Zápolya controls eastern Hungary and Transylvania.
1540	János Zápolya dies.
1541	Buda falls to the Ottoman Turks. The Hungarian kingdom is divided into three parts, with the Habsburgs controlling the west, the Turks controlling the central plain, and Transylvania becoming semiautonomous under Hungarian princes beginning with János Zsigmond (1541--51, 1556--71) son of János Zápolya. Henceforth the rulers of Transylvania attempt to maintain their independence by accepting Ottoman supremacy. They transform Transylvania into the main center of Hungarian culture and national development until at least 1690.
1544	The national convention at Torda (Turda, Thorenburg [Thorda]) announces the union of Transylvania with the Partium (the Hungarian plains east of the Tisza and to the west of Transylvania).
1546	A paper mill is set up in Kronstadt (Brassó, Brasov) to supply the needs of the fledgling publishing activities in Transylvania. Many of the works that appear reflect the religious ferment of the time and the tremendous impact that the Reformation has had on Transylvanian intellectual development.
1556	The Diet of Transylvania proclaims that every person has the right to follow the religion of choice. Transylvania thus becomes the first state in Europe to declare a policy of religious toleration.
1567	Ferenc Dávid publishes "Rövid Magyarázat" ("A Brief Exposition") at Kolozsvár (Cluj, Klausenburg) and thereby establishes the Hungarian version of Unitarianism.
1568	The Diet of Transylvania decrees the "accepted" status of the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Calvin Reformed, and Unitarian faiths.
1571	István Báthory becomes prince of Transylvania until 1581.
1575	István Báthory becomes king of Poland.
1581	István Báthory founds a Jesuit academy that becomes the precursor of contemporary higher education in Kolozsvár (Cluj, Klausenburg).
1581	Zsigmond Báthory becomes prince of Transylvania until 1597. He embroils his state in the Fifteen Years' War on the side of the Habsburgs against the Turks (1591--1606). The bloodshed and chaos that ensue enable the Wallachian voivode, Mihai Viteazul, to invade Transylvania.
1599--1600	Mihai Viteazul obtains control over Transylvania in October, 1599, and holds sway until September, 1600. Although this interlude is less than a year, it has been presented in recent writings by Rumanian historians as the first "unification" of the "Rumanian countries." His rule is followed by the brutal Habsburg incursion of George Basta, who terrorizes Transylvania from 1599 to 1604.
1604--06	The popular uprising led by István Bocskai finally re-establishes order. Bocskai defeats the Habsburg forces and is able to re-establish Transylvanian independence. He is also successful in terminating the Fifteen Years' War with the signing of the Treaties of Vienna (June 23, 1606) and Zsitvatorok (November 22, 1606).
1608--13	Gábor Báthory becomes prince of Transylvania and for a short period also claims to be voivode of Wallachia.
1613	Gábor Bethlen becomes prince of Transylvania and retains this position until his death in 1629. His reign is the "Golden Age" of independent Transylvania. Commerce, construction, education, and culture flourish. Transylvania plays an important role in the Thirty Years' War.
1621	The Treaty of Nikolsburg recognizes Transylvanian independence.
1630	Cyörgy Rákóczi I becomes prince of Transylvania and reigns until 1648.
1639	Maize begins to appear as an important crop in Transylvania.
1643	Transylvania again becomes embroiled in the Thirty Years' War as an ally of Sweden and France.
1645	The Treaty of Linz terminates Transylvania's involvement in the conflict on favorable terms, ceding to it seven counties of the Partium. The treaty also confirms the terms of the Treaty of Nikolsburg with the further stipulation that religious toleration should also apply to the serfs.
1648	With the sponsorship of György Rákóczi I the first complete Rumanian translation of the New Testament (Noul Testament) appears in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Karlsburg).
1648	György Rákóczi II becomes prince of Transylvania and reigns until 1660.
1653	The Approbatae Constitutiones Regni Transilvaniae is published. It becomes the legal framework of Transylvania for the next 200 years.
1657	January-July György Rákóczi II undertakes his ill-fated war to obtain the Polish crown. Although he successfully captures Krakow and Warsaw, the defection of allies and the stretched supply lines lead to his defeat and the capture of his army by the Tatars.
1657	Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, the widow of György Rákóczi I, establishes a Rumanian school in Fogaras (Fagaras).
1658	The Turks and their Tatar allies unleash a punitive expedition against Transylvania. It devastates and depopulates the Szamos (Somes) Valley and leads to the sack of such cities as Gyulafehérvár.

Transylvania - The Roots of Ethnic Conflict